Research book 5 - 4th December 2015

Process Research

Albumen prints

Presented in this paper are the procedures for making your own albumen prints. This is an involved, fairly time-consuming process but requires skills well within the abilities of the average person. If you are patient and interested in the time-honored technique of producing your own hand-coated paper, then you can easily master the art of albumen printmaking.

Starting point

A well-presented albumen print begins with high quality paper. Lightweight papers (stationery stock or slightly heavier papers) are better for producing albumen (or other POP) prints than heavier stocks, but the paper must be sufficiently sized to endure prolonged wetting and should contain no impurities which could stain or otherwise contaminate the emulsion. Several manufacturers produce 100% rag papers suitable for creating albumen prints, notable examples are Cranes (Kid Finish 32#, Platinotype or Parchment Wove 44#), Arches (Platinotype) and Strathmore (500 Drawing). These papers or acceptable substitutes can be purchased from Bostick & Sullivan, Photographer’s Formularyor most art supply stores. Try to avoid heavier stock, as the paper will absorb the albumen coating, causing prints to lose sharpness due to the emulsion’s being embedded in the fibers of the paper, rather than resting on it.

Ingredients

Sizing/salting solution

• 12 eggs or enough for 500ml of egg whites
• 15-g ammonium chloride or salt
• 15-ml distilled water
• 2-ml 28% acetic (glacial) acid
• 15-g sodium citrate (optional preservative)
• 2 drops Kodak PhotoFlo (optional)

Sensitizer

• 37.5-g silver nitrate
• 250-ml distilled water
• 2 drops 6.5-7% potassium dichromate (optional contrast control)

Preparing the albumen

To double coat 50 sheets of 8.5X11 paper, you will need about 500-ml of egg whites. Separate the eggs, avoiding getting yolk, shells or chalazae (the stringy white stuff) in the whites.

All the ingredients

The high-tech kitchen lab

Pour the 500-ml of egg whites, 2-ml of 28% acetic acid, 15-ml of distilled water and 15-g of ammonium chloride (sodium chloride or kosher/deiodized table or sea salt may be used as an alternative to ammonium chloride) into a large glass bowl. Additionally 15-g of sodium citrate may be added as a preservative. This is not necessary if you will be using your albumen mixture within a couple months and will be using your newly-created paper shortly thereafter.

KitchenAid makes life easy

Scooping off the dirty froth

Beat the mixture with a whisk (an electric hand mixer will make this much less tiring) for a minimum of 30 minutes. The mixture will become very meringue-like but will not stiffen. The longer the mixture is beaten, the finer the suspended air bubbles will become until nothing is left but a fine froth.

After beating, cover the bowl with plastic wrap, and place it in a refrigerator overnight. The mixture will settle, leaving a dirty froth on top. Remove and discard the froth,

Straining the mixture through cheesecloth

The final product

and filter the remaining albumen (approximately 350-ml of a surprisingly free-flowing liquid) through cheesecloth, folded two or three times, into a clearly labeled glass jar with a plastic lid. Adding a drop or two of a wash aid such as Kodak PhotoFlo will help prevent the formation of bubbles on the surface of the paper at time of coating. Age the mixture in a refrigerator for a week or so to further denature it. This is your sizing/salting mixture.

Coating the paper

Pour the albumen into a glass casserole dish. Scrape away any tiny bubbles, which will probably have formed on the surface of the liquid. Place a sheet of paper, front side down, on the surface of the albumen. (Look for the watermark while holding the paper up to a light. If the watermark reads correctly, you are looking at the front side of the paper.) Float the paper on the mixture for three minutes. The edges of the paper, which will curl up and away from the surface of the liquid, can be pushed down SLIGHTLY to ensure proper contact. According to Farber other methods that can be used to prevent paper from curling include:

• keeping the paper and albumen mixture at the same temperature,
• lightly dampening the back of the paper or
• contructing a rectangular-bottomed “boat” out of the the paper.

Care should be used to not get any albumen on the back of the paper, as this will cause an undesirable print-through effect in the final product. As the paper floats on the mixture, the curled edges will relax to fully coat the surface of the paper. After three minutes have expired, use a toothpick to lift one corner of the paper, and lift the sheet from the surface of the albumen, allowing the liquid to drain.

Hang the paper lengthwise, blotting off any excess as the coating dries. A toothpick works well to pop or scrape away any surface bubbles and to squeegee the thick edge, which will form at the bottom of the paper.

Double coating

Double coating, though not required, produces prints with a glossier finish, more even coating and greater density. This process increases the level of difficulty of creating albumen prints, though the final product is worthy of the extra effort. The first albumen coating should be hardened before applying the second using one of the following methods:

• fully steam the coated paper,
• thoroughly warm the paper with an iron or mounting press, protecting the coating with a sheet of dry, clean mount board,
• allow the paper to sit in a warm place for several weeks or
• immerse the paper in an isopropyl alcohol/salt solution.

To double coat the paper using an isopropyl alcohol/salt hardening solution with the albumen formula given, use the following method. After the single-coated paper has dried, immerse it for 15 seconds in a solution of 70% isopropyl alcohol with 3% ammonium chloride added. This will harden the albumen for the second coat. When the alcohol has evaporated (fully – otherwise the second coat won’t stick), float the paper on the surface of the albumen mixture once again following the previously described procedure. The recommended salt concentration corresponds directly with the concentration of salt in the albumen coating. (Since 70% isopropyl alcohol will leech salt from the albumen, the same concentration must exist in both solutions.)

Without this hardening step, the first albumen coating would otherwise wash away with the second coating. Hang to dry from the opposite side for even results, blotting away any excess along the bottom edge. The paper will probably curl severely; it may be straightened in a warm mounting press.

Sensitizing the paper

Coated paper will keep for several weeks if sensitizing is to be performed at a later time; however, it is best to sensitize the paper as soon as it is dry. Wear rubber gloves unless you want brown/black/purple stains on your fingers, fingernails and/or clothing. Silver nitrate will react with the salt of your skin to form silver chloride, just as it does on paper, and will “develop out” in a matter of a minute or two in sunlight. Wearing safety glasses is also recommended, for silver nitrate can cause permanent damage if even a small amount is splashed into the eyes. All of the following techniques may be carried out in subdued (incandescent) room lighting. Avoid fluorescent lamps and other sources of UV light.

In an amber glass bottle with a plastic top mix 37.5-g of silver nitrate with 250-ml of distilled water to make a 15% solution. Initially the solution will be cloudy due to the reaction between the silver nitrate and the salts and minerals in the water. The precipitate will settle overnight and is of no consequence. Store the sesitizer in a cool, dark place.

Method 1 – Floatation coating

Pour 15% silver nitrate solution into a flat-bottomed tray. The glass casserole dish used for albumen coating will work but MUST be cleaned thoroughly after use if food is to be ingested from it. WARNING: Ingestion of any heavy metal can be toxic; it is best to dedicate lab ware to these procedures. Float the coated paper on the surface of the solution for three minutes, avoiding air bubbles. Peel the paper from the surface, and hang to dry.

Some salt will inevitably leech from the paper surface, reacting with the silver nitrate solution and forming a precipitate which will eventually settle on the bottom of the coating tray and storage bottle. This is the major drawback to this method – waste. As more and more chloride ions saturate the silver nitrate solution, it will become darker in color and less effective. Some of this potential loss of silver nitrate can be combated by allowing the solution to sit for an hour or two after completing sensitization, perhaps while making a print or two, to settle the precipitate. While slowly and carefully pouring the liquid back into its storage bottle, forego the last few milliliters, preventing the heavier precipitate from being mixed with the solution. Filtering off the precipitate after every use will go a long way toward extending the life of the silver nitrate solution.

Method 2 – Glass rod/brush coating

Tape the albumen-coated paper to a sheet of plate glass with drafting tape. If the negative to be printed is smaller than the paper lay the negative on the paper and lightly mark off the corners with a pencil. Use these marks as a guide for coating.

Transfer 45 drops (for an 8×10; use a proportional amount for other sizes of paper) of 15% silver nitrate solution in a plastic medicine cup. The small condiment cups used by fast food restaurants are perfect. Optionally add 9 drops (for 8×10; use a proportional amount for other sizes of paper) of gum arabic solution, which will aid in spreading the emulsion. Mix the solutions by swirling them in the cup. Use a brush without a metal ferrule, which silver nitrate will rapidly react with, or a glass coating rod to apply the solution to the paper. A coating rod, also available from Bostick & Sullivan or Photographer’s Formulary, is the preferred device for spreading the emulsion, since creating streak-free papers is rather difficult, though not impossible, with a brush. The addition of gum arabic will give the solution an oily appearance, making seeing and spreading the coating easier.

To brush coat tip the glass, to which the paper has been taped, at a 45 degree angle and paint the silver nitrate coating from top to bottom, drawing the brush from one side to the other, overlapping each stripe by about half the width of the stroke. Recoat the brush after each stroke.

To coat with a glass rod lay the plate glass, to which the paper has been taped, flat. Pour a “bead” of silver nitrate solution on the paper along the edge of the glass rod. Lifting the rod just slightly from the surface of the paper and wiggling it slightly will cause a capillary action to draw the solution along the length of the rod. Lower the glass rod to the surface of the paper, and swipe it across the paper. At the end of the paper lift the rod slightly from the surface of the paper, and swipe it across the paper in the opposite direction. Performing this operation several times will ensure a smooth, even coating. If the sensitizer is absorbed by the paper too rapidly, the paper is not sized well enough to coat using a rod. Either try another brand/type of paper, pre-size the paper, apply another coat of albumen, or use the floatation method of sensitizing the paper.

The paper may be air-dried or blown dry while taped to the glass or may be carefully removed from the glass and hung to dry.

Method 2 – Wash coating

Tape the albumen-coated paper to a sheet of plate glass with drafting tape. If the negative to be printed is smaller than the paper lay the negative on the paper and lightly mark off the corners with a pencil. Use these marks as a guide for coating. Tilt the glass plate about 45 degrees for coating.

Add 3 or 4 milliliters of 15% silver nitrate to a small test tube, and stuff a wad of cotton snugly into it so that a third of the wad protrudes from the end. Tilt the test tube to allow the solution to fully saturate the cotton.

Hold the test tube at a right angle to the paper, and starting from the top left corner, lightly “paint” a streak of solution across the top of the paper. When the right edge of the paper is reached, paint a streak in the opposite direction, making sure that the streaks of solution overlap slightly, spreading the bead of solution, which gathers at the bottom of each stroke. Continue this pattern, right-left, left-right, right-left, until the end of the paper is reached. The paper will have a uniform coating and will show no evidence of streaking when done correctly. Air or hang dry. Remove the cotton with tweezers and discard.

Negative Requirements

Albumen paper requires several items somewhat unique to alternative processes. The first requirement is a negative with a density range of 1.8 to 2.0, as the extreme tonal range of albumen paper will cause a “normal” negative to print very flat. The second is a contact printing frame with a split back, which enables monitoring of the printing-out process. Third, some sort of toner is needed, usually gold or selenium, unless a brown-orange print color is desired. The fourth requirement is a bright, sunny day, since albumen is very sensitive to ultraviolet light, and the best source of this radiation is the sun. The last (absolute) necessity is patience…and lots of it.

Exposing

Loading – This step must be performed in subdued light. Load a contact printing frame with paper and a negative in typical fashion. (Place the back, spring side down, on a flat surface. Place the paper to be exposed on top of the back, emulsion side up. Place a negative on the paper, emulsion side down. Cover with the (CLEAN) glass from the print frame. Place the frame on top of the entire assembly. Flip the frame over, so that the spring side is facing up, and clamp shut.) Once the assembly has been examined for straightness, cleanliness, etc., place the print frame in the sun for printing.

Printing – The amount of time required to fully print out a silver chloride print will vary depending on the strength of the light source (by the way, UV printers may be used in lieu of the sun) and the density of the negative. Some prints will take as little as a minute or two, while others may take 15 to 20 minutes to produce. The summer sun, since it is much higher in the sky than it is in the winter, will dramatically shorten print times. Prints may also be produced by placing the print frame toward open sky, which yields higher contrast images but takes considerably longer due to the lack of direct sunlight.

After some time has passed, remove the frame from the light source, and open half of the split back of the print frame. Incredible! This is why it’s called printing-out paper! The image already exists on the paper, but this is where the process gets tricky. Toning and fixing will bleach the print somewhat, while drying will darken it. A little trial and error is required to determine when to stop printing. The general rule of thumb is to print until the highlights start to show detail. The shadow areas will appear quite dark most likely but will bleach more than enough to show detail. The toning procedure being used should also be considered at this time. Toning in gold before fixing is rather straightforward, and follows the aforementioned rule of thumb. Toning in gold after fixing will require exposing the print to light until it is considerably darker than one would think is “normal”. This is because fixing the print first will bleach it much more than toning first. At this point it should be mentioned that when using selenium toner, the print should be fixed BEFORE it is toned, otherwise the toner will react with the silver chloride in the print and will make the print “fuzzy” in appearance.

Processing

Rinsing – Once the print has been exposed to an acceptable level, remove it from the print frame and rinse it in running water. The water will be murky at first as unreacted silver salt is rinsed away. As it is rinsed the print will turn from a bluish-purple color to an orange-brown color as the reaction is stopped. This will probably take about 30 seconds but should be continued until the water is clear, as excess silver will quickly exhaust the toning solution. If a small print is being made on larger paper (and the dark edge will ultimately be trimmed away), trim any excessive dark border from the print. There is no point to using (and wasting) precious gold toner on paper, which is going to be discarded anyway.

Toning – After rinsing, slip the print into the toning solution, and watch for a color change while agitating. Usually toning times run anywhere from three to twelve minutes, with the longer times producing the coldest tones. The thing to keep in mind here is that the color of the print while it is in the toner has little to do with the ultimate color of the print. Watch for the amount of color CHANGE to determine when to stop toning. (Yes… more trial and error.) After a few attempts instinct will guide the process.

Fixing – Prints should be fixed in two baths of non-hardening fixer for approximately 5 minutes each. As they are being fixed, the prints will experience yet another color shift, which will closely resemble the look of the final print. Bear in mind that a considerable dry-down effect will impact the final look of the print. If a print looks great while sitting in the fixer, it is guaranteed to be too dark once dried.

Washing – Before washing, soak in a hypo clear (use Kodak HCA or one tablespoon EDTA plus one tablespoon sodium sulfite to a gallon of water) bath for two to three minutes. Wash prints for 60 to 90 minutes (only about 30 minutes is required if using hypo clear) in running water, preferably in an archival print washer. One of the undeniably great virtues of albumen paper is that a properly washed print will outlive the artist who produced it (as well as his children and his grandchildren). Silver chloride prints exist today which were produced over 150 years ago and have withstood the rigors of time with amazing permanence. Hang prints to dry, and straighten in a dry mounting press.

Alternative toning methods – If selenium or gold toning AFTER fixing is desired, rinse and fix the print as described above, then fully wash. Once the print has been washed thoroughly, tone in either gold or selenium. Then wash again for another 30 minutes. This method of toning is not necessary for gold, but is absolutely required if toning in selenium. Keep in mind that prints produced using this method will be vastly different from those created using the standard method of toning. (The difference is in the point at which bleaching occurs.)

Consider toning with tea or coffee as well. Steep five or six tea bags (no need to use any elaborate blend; the standard orange pekoe will do fine) in a quart of water. Let cool, and tone away. Surprisingly teas and coffee are archivally permanent but may require extended washing.

Toning

The only chemical that is absolutely required for processing albumen paper is plain non-hardening (sodium thiosulfate) fixer. Kodak RapidFix (without the hardener – part b) is a suitable product. Remember: only use part A of the product; the hardener will ruin an albumen print by severely over-bleaching it. Dilute the stock solution with water to create a 1:7 working solution. Two fixing baths are recommended, using the typical rotation method to avoid exhaustion of the fixer.

If a print tone other than ugly orange is desired, a toner should be used. Here are several popular toning formulae:

Two-part gold thiocyanate

Stock Solution
Part A		Part B
Distilled water	490ml	Distilled water	500ml
Gold chloride 1% solution	10ml	Sodium thiocyanate	10g

Working Solution
Distilled water	900ml
Part A	50ml
Part B	50ml

These stock solutions have an indefinite shelf life.

Upon mixing parts A and B the solution will turn a bright red color, which will quickly dissipate to yield a clear liquid. This is the working strength solution to be used for this session only, as gold thiocyanate is quickly rendered useless by oxidation. After toning each 8×10 print, add 8ml of each stock solution to maintain consistency. Tone print before fixing.

Stock/Working Solution
Distilled water	350ml
Gold chloride 1% solution	6ml
Borax	3g
Distilled water to make 400ml

Gold borax

This toner keeps well, may be reused and can be replenished. Experiment with different strengths of toner to expand or contract toning times. Tone print before fixing.

Stock/Working Solution
Distilled water	500ml
Kodak Rapid Selenium Toner	1-2ml

Selenium

Experimentation will be required to hone selenium toning, which can be finnicky. One is better off toning too slowly than too fast, so a low concentration is the prescription for best control. Fast toning in selenium can produce interesting split-toning effects. Tone print afterfixing.

Image below: Devil’s Backbone – by Chad Jarvis, gold toned albumen print.

Pour toner and fixer into trays one size larger than the paper being used (11×14 tray for 8×10 prints). Ribbed trays may be used; however, the prints must be constantly agitated to avoid having bright lines form where the paper contacts the tray. Flat trays do not have this problem and are better for fully submerging the print, since, to avoid waste, small amounts of toner are used.

Notes

• Albumen papers should be used within hours of sensitization, otherwise a 1.5 to 2 stop reduction in density and speed can be expected. This can purportedly be countered somewhat by adding 15-g of sodium citrate to the albumen solution during its initial preparation.
• Print contrast can be boosted through the addition of a drop or two of 6.5-7% (2-g/30-ml) potassium dichromate to the sensitizing solution. WARNING: Dichromates are highly toxic and should be handled with great care to avoid accidental inhalation or ingestion.
• Albumen coating solution may be aged for up to several months to further denature the solution. This denaturing process actually “unwinds” the molecules which form the albumen protein, making the solution less viscous. Some have noted, “the older the better”.
• Albumen prints require negatives of exceedingly high contrast range, usually above 2.0, dictating the need for full exposure (at least one stop more than a negative to be used for a silver gelatin print) and N+2 development. These negatives will comonly exceed the contrast range of silver gelatin papers. Negatives that are difficult to print on grade 0 or 1 paper can often be “rescued” with albumen, salted or other printing-out papers.

(Information and Images found at http://www.alternativephotography.com/wp/processes/albumen/albumen-printing on 16.12.2015)

The anthotype process

Writer / Martin Helmut Reis

Flowers, Water & Sun: An Early Photographic Process Revisited.

Always be careful with chemicals. Read the health and safety instructions.

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Anthotypes are a beautiful way to create fine art images right from your garden. This long neglected process, originally invented by Sir William Herschel in 1842, is simple yet elegant. An emulsion is made from crushed flower petals or any other light-sensitive plant, fruit or vegetable. A coated sheet of paper is then dried, exposed to direct full sun-light until the image is bleached out. This is done ideally in a printing frame over 1-3 days or more depending on conditions and negative/material. What you see is what you get. No fixation is required. You can follow the gradually emerging image as you go. Results vary greatly from plant to plant and the strength of the emulsion employed. The resulting images are exquisite and often almost wispy or dream-like.

The Anthotype process is a beautiful way to make images and is certainly the most environmentally-friendly.

History

The photo-sensitive properties of plants and vegetables have been known to scholars for centuries. Among many early observations the experiments of Henri August Vogel in Paris are of particular interest. He found in 1816:

An alcoholic tincture of either red carnations, violets or corn poppy turned white behind blue glass in a few days, while it remained unchanged behind red glass after about the same time. Cotton and paper coloured with these tinctures showed the same differences.

When Herschel later that century attempted to invent a colour process he tried several flower and plant emulsions and published his findings. His research resulted in what we now refer to as the Anthotype process. It should be pointed out that his research into making photographic images from flowers was limited and was ultimately abandoned since no commercial application was feasible from a process which takes days to produce an image. The process continued to be listed in photographic the literature of the time but was likely little used.

Over time the process has earned a false reputation for being simply too impractical. Image permanence have been brought into question to this day but this problem seems to be mostly related to choice of flower or plant matter.

How it works

I could not phrase it better than Snelling’s description which follows:
"From an examination of the researches of Sir John Herschel on the coloring matter of plants, it will be seen that the action of the sun’s rays is to destroy the colour, effecting a sort of chromatic analysis, in which two distinct elements of color are separated, by destroying the one and leaving the other outstanding. The action is confined within the visible spectrum, and thus a broad distinction is exhibited between the action of the sun’s rays on vegetable juices and on argentine compounds, the latter being most sensibly affected by the invisible rays beyond the violet.
It may also be observed, that the rays effective in destroying a given tint, are in a great many cases, those whose union produces a color complementary to the tint destroyed, or, at least, one belonging to that class of colors to which such complementary tint may be preferred. For instance, yellows tending towards orange are destroyed with more energy by the blue rays; blues by the red, orange and yellow rays; purples and pinks by yellow and green rays."

– Henry H. Snelling

The method

1Start with any flower you like although the following seem to work well: Poppies (images below were made with the red poppies above) or Peonies (Clive Heritage-Tilley). According to Henry S. Snelling the leaves of the laurel, common cabbage, and the grasses, are found sufficiently sensitive. I have also tried Goldenseal and Echinacea but results were not encouraging.
The most important thing to remember is that many, many species of flowers have never been explored. Crush the petals in a pestle and mortar to a fine pulp and add a little distilled water as you go. The purest water you can find is recommended since any impurities will interfere with the delicate light sensitive properties of the emulsion. Filter the juices through a cheese cloth or clean linen to remove small plant bits and some impurities.

2Using a clean simple brush coat any paper you like (hand-made Paper being an extra nice touch) in nice even strokes vertically and horizontally leaving no pools of emulsion on the surface.

3Dry the paper in the dark over-night or with a hand dryer on low heat.

4Contact print any media or plant in a printing frame or clip frame. Expose in full sunlight over 1-3 days or more depending on your aesthetic. Done. The print can be kept in subdued or artificial light although exposure to direct sunlight is discouraged.
A method of fixing Anthotypes is not known and perhaps not necessary despite obvious limitations.

Working notes:

Denatured alcohol or even lighter fluid can be used instead of Distilled and/or de-mineralized water.

Keep the emulsion fairly thick (i.e. less water/alcohol) for darker images or add more distilled water for a lighter image. In the case of red poppies a thicker emulsion yields a light brown image while a thinner emulsion looks more light purple. You can blend your emulsion to get the thickness your prefer as you go along.

Store your emulsion in a dark bottle away from sunlight. It should keep for some time but re-filtration through a sieve is a good idea before coating if the emulsion has not been used. I have used stored older emulsions for months after and it was fine.

The emulsion on paper which is fully exposed to sunlight will slowly fade to near white or faint yellow as its colour is destroyed by the suns rays.

Since exposures must take place in full sunlight the movement of the sun will naturally create a slight shadowing effect unless the whatever media is in very tight contact with the glass.

Will a light-box work? I suppose if the light source is full spectrum and sufficiently bright, then maybe. However, a popular maxim for alternative photography states; "There’s no substitute for the sun". This I believe certainly applies here.

Larger negatives/stencils/acetates seem better suited for this process. I found smaller negs not to yield enough detail.

Other things to try out:

• Double coating paper
• Anthotypes on cloth
• Mixing in pigments from oil paints
• Printing on coloured paper stock
• Printing 4×5 colour negs/slide film

Other flower suggestions:

Henry H. Snelling writes based on his research: "Viola Odorata – or sweet scented violet, yields to alcohol a rich blue color, which it imparts in high perfection to paper. Senecio Splendens – or double purple groundsel, yields a beautiful color to paper".

Sources:

• I owe a great deal of thanks to Clive Heritage-Tilley and Henry H. Snelling for their research and admirable insights. Especially, I would like to encourage anyone interested in trying the Anthotype Process to read the article listed below which inspired me to finally try it.
• Clive Heritage-Tilley on the Anthotype Process
• Henry H. Snelling on Anthotypes
• Josef Eder, The History of Photography, Dover Press, 1978.

(Information and Images found at http://www.alternativephotography.com/wp/processes/anthotypes/anthotype-process on 16.12.2015)

Cyanotype – the classic process

Writer / Malin Fabbri and Gary Fabbri
Photography / Malin Fabbri

Cyanotype process – a modified extract from the book Blueprint to cyanotypes describing the classic or traditional cyanotype process.

Always be careful when handling chemicals. Read the health and safety instructions.

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Unlike photographs set in silver, like in black and white photography, cyanotypes are using a solution of iron compounds.

The photograph can be taken with a camera, like a digital camera, and the resulting photo turned into a negative that can be used to make a cyanotype.

The basic cyanotype recipe has not changed very much since Sir John Herschel introduced it in 1842. However, some advances have been made by Mike Ware in what is referred to as the New cyanotype process. Ware’s cyanotype formula has less bleed, shorter exposure times and a longer density range than Herschel’s, but it is also slightly more complicated to mix and uses more toxic chemicals.

The cyanotype process at a glance

The cyanotype process is simple. It can be done easily in a few steps:

Mixing chemicalsThe cyanotype is made up of two simple solutions.

• Potassium ferricyanide and Ferric ammonium citrate (green) are mixed with water separately.
• The two solutions are then blended together in equal parts.

Preparing the canvas

• Paper, card, textiles or any other naturally absorbent material is coated with the solution and dried in the dark.

Printing the cyanotype

• Objects or negatives are placed on the material to make a print. The cyanotype is printed using UV light, such as the sun, a light box or a UV lamp.

Processing and drying

• After exposure the material is processed by simply rinsing it in water. A white print emerges on a blue background.
• The final print is dried and admired.

What you need

Before you start, get all the items you need together.

• 25 grams of Ferric ammonium citrate (green)
• 10 grams of Potassium ferricyanide
• Water (distilled if possible)
• Scale or measuring spoons
• Measuring jug
• 3 glass containers for mixing ingredients
• Plastic spoons
• Face mask (DIY style)
• Goggles
• Rubber gloves
• Apron or old shirt
• Newspaper to cover work surface
• Cleaning cloth
• Brushes or coating rod
• Clothes pegs (plastic)
• Washing line or rope (plastic)
• Art paper or fabric for coating
• Glass or a contact print frame
• Sunshine or a UV light source

Mixing chemicals

Cyanotype is a very simple process. It involves treating a surface with iron salts that reacts to UV light. Wear a face mask and rubber gloves when working with chemicals. In this case, Ammonium ferric citrate and Potassium ferricyanide. Two separate solutions are made and then equal quantities of each solution is mixed together in a third container.

The formula

This recipe makes approximately 50 8×10 inch prints. The cyanotype is made up of two simple solutions:

• Solution A: 25 grams Ferric ammonium citrate (green) and 100 ml. water.
• Solution B: 10 grams Potassium ferricyanide and 100 ml. water.

1Mixing the chemicalsDissolve the chemicals in water to make two separate solutions. Add Ammonium ferric citrate to water into one container and Potassium ferricyanide to water in another. Stir with a plastic spoon until the chemicals dissolve. Mix equal quantities of each solution together in a third container. Unused solutions can be stored separately in brown bottles away from light, but will not last very long once they have been mixed. Dispose of any unused chemicals in a sensible and environmentally friendly way!
 
Your work area
Your floors, carpets, walls, work surfaces, clothes and skin can be stained by the chemicals. Cover all possible areas, use rubber gloves and an apron or an old shirt to work in. If you have the space, choose an area where you can spread out. Ordinary light bulbs or tungsten light is safe to use, but UV light will affect your prints. Some fluorescent lighting may also affect your prints.

2Preparing the canvasUsing a brush, simply paint the chemicals onto the material. Paper, card, textiles or any natural material can be used to print on. Decide how big your print is going to be, and cut your material to size. Make sure your working area is dimly lit, or lit with a low-level tungsten bulb. Once the material is coated, leave it to dry in the dark.

3Printing the cyanotype
Print a cyanotype by placing your negative (to reproduce a photograph) or object (to make a photogram) in contact with your coated paper or fabric. Sandwich it with a piece of glass. Expose the sandwich to UV light. Natural sunlight is the traditional light source, but UV lamps can also be used. A photogram can also be made by placing items on the surface. Plants, decorative items or other objects can be used to create silhouettes or interesting shapes. Exposure times can vary from a few minutes to several hours, depending on how strong your lightsource is or the season where you are printing.

4Processing and drying
When the print has been exposed, process your print by rinsing it in cold water. The wash also removes any unexposed chemicals. Wash for at least 5 minutes, until all chemicals are removed and the water runs clear. Oxidation is also hastened this way – bringing out the blue color. The final print can now be hung to dry and be admired.

(Information and Images found at http://www.alternativephotography.com/wp/processes/cyanotype/cyanotype-classic-process on 16.12.2015)

A dash of salt

Writer and Photography / Wynn White

A description of the salted paper print process with some interesting variations.

Always be careful when handling chemicals. Read the health and safety instructions.

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Combine hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide and what do you get? That’s right, sodium chloride commonly known as table salt. Salt is one of two key ingredients in the making of salted paper prints.

The salted paper process was invented by William Henry Fox Talbot, known as The Father of Modern Photography, in 1833 while he was on his honey moon. He was the first to make a silver image on paper. On his first attempts paper coated with a silver nitrate solution and exposed to light only gave a faint metallic silver image. He later discovered that by first applying salt to the paper and then coating it with the silver nitrate solution he could get a much stronger image. This is basically the same way that we make salt prints today.

Image above: William Henry Fox Talbot

Photogenic drawing of a fern leaf, c.1835-40

Salted paper printing process

Recipe I: Table Salt

• Sodium Chloride 2.0 gm
• Distilled Water to make 100.0 ml
• Silver Nitrate 12.0 gm
• Distilled Water to make 100.0 ml

I recommend starting with this recipe since it is the most basic. The amount of salt can be altered slightly but at three grams per 100 ml the paper prints a very faint violet unless double coated with silver. At four grams per 100 ml I could only get a faint violet image. It is possible to make prints with much lower salt concentrations than the standard 2%. Substituting ammonium chloride for sodium chloride moves the print color from sepia towards more of a reddish brown and also increases print speed slightly. The amount of silver nitrate solution can be lowered to around 10% (10 grams per 100 ml).

Method

1Mix up the salting solution. Before coating write the name of the paper on the back in pencil for future reference and also so that after it is coated and dried you will be able to tell which side the coating is on. Smooth, preferably hot press, paper works best. It is important that the paper not be too porous since the solutions will have a tendency to sink in too deeply. One paper that I have found to work nicely with no additional sizing is Rising Stonehenge. Using masking tape, tape the paper at the corners to a heavy sheet of glass. Measure out an appropriate amount of salting solution. I use a pipette that I have marked so that the amount of solution won’t vary from print to print. Coat the paper. I like to use a glass rod for coating.

A detailed description of glass rod coating can be found at Bostick & Sullivan. http://www.bostick-sullivan.com/newbook/Page_thumbs.htm.

Use a foam brush or hake (Japanese generic term for brush) if you want prints with painterly brush marks. Allow the paper to dry. A hair drier at any setting can be used to speed up the process. Salting can be carried out under bright light and the salted paper will keep indefinitely.

2After the salted paper is dry, under safelight conditions, coat it with the silver nitrate solution. Salted paper is mainly sensitive to ultraviolet light so exposure to low level tungsten light will not fog it. Just to make sure that my paper doesn’t get fogged I work under the light of a 7 watt, yellow light bulb placed one meter above my coating area and another one above my darkroom sink. Be very careful not to get silver nitrate on your skin or, more importantly, in your eyes. It could blind you. If you use brushes you should use a separate brush for each of the two solutions. I use two separate pipettes and coating rods.

3Dry the paper in the dark. If you use a hair dryer use the cool setting. The paper is now ready for printing and should be used right away to avoid fogging.

Recipe II: Tokyo Bay Water

• Tokyo Bay water: 50.0 ml
• Distilled water to make 100.0 ml
• Silver Nitrate 12.0 gm
• Distilled water to make 100.0 ml

I collected the bay water in a Suntory whisky bottle that had washed up on the beach. When I got home I boiled it to kill the plankton. Coating and drying are the same as in Recipe I. The problem with using sea water is that it is difficult to judge how much salt there is in the water. One method of testing for salinity calls for silver nitrate, one of the main ingredients of the salt print.

I learned that there is, on average, 35 grams of salt in a liter of sea water and slightly less in bay water due to fresh water runoff. I mistakenly calculated that it was a 30~35% solution and mixed my first salting solution one part bay water to fifteen parts distilled water. Even with this small amount of salt I was able to get a nice print that was quite pink in color. After realizing my mistake I made another salting solution mixing it one to one and got a sepia colored print.

Image above: Rocksurf (Tokyo Bay Water print).

Note: If you absoulutely have to try this variation but don’t have access to Tokoy bay water, Wynn will be happy to send you some, just send him the postage… 

Recipe III: Wynn’s Favorite

Salting Solution

• Sodium Chloride 2.0 gm
• Potassium Citrate 2.0 gm
• Distilled Water to make 100 ml

Mix the salting solution and coat the paper. I use a coating rod.

Silver Solution

• Silver Nitrate 12.0 gm
• Distilled Water to make 50.0 ml

Citric Acid Solution

• Citric Acid 6.0 gm
• Distilled water to make 50.0 ml

Just before coating combine equal parts of the silver solution and citric acid solution. Coat the dry, salted paper with the silver nitrate/citric acid solution. If the citric acid is added to the silver solution and then stored, after time, an unwanted precipitate will form. The citric acid helps prevent fog.

Sodium chloride is used in this recipe but ammonium chloride gives results that are almost the same. The amount of potassium citrate can be lowered or omitted and sodium citrate can also be used in its place. Citrates seem to give deeper richer browns.

I mask off my prints to give a neat border around the image area. With the basic salt recipe I kept getting slight to moderate fog in the masked area. After adding citric acid to the silver nitrate solution the fog went away. I strongly advise masking, at least in the beginning, so that you can see whether or not your prints are clearing properly.

Contrast Control

The safest and most natural way to gain contrast if you are using a UV printer is to use sunlight. The boost in contrast is substantial.

A very efficient but more dangerous method of contrast control utilizes potassium dichromate. Before using this chemical you should be familiar with its hazards. An MSDS for potassium dichromate can be found at jtbaker.com/msds/englishhtml/P5719.htm.

A general rule would be never to let it come in contact with any part of your body or to breath in any potassium dichromate dust, even in minute quantities.

I have mixed solutions of potassium dichromate from .5% to 10% and keep them in separately numbered bottles; each bottle being successively .5% more concentrated. Before coating I add one drop of an appropriate potassium dichromate solution to the measured out salting solution. With greater concentrations of dichromate exposure times become increasingly longer. I generally work in the .5% to 2% range.

Image above: Potassium Dichromate Bottles

Sizing

In a good salted paper print the image is sharp, rendering great detail. If the coating solutions soak too deeply into the paper the image will be in the paper rather than on the surface thus causing the image to appear dull and lack detail.

Depending on the paper, I apply a 1-3% (1-3 grams per 100 ml) gelatin sizing. To prepare the sizing add the gelatin to 25 ml or so of distilled water at room temperature. Unflavored gelatin purchased at the grocery store works fine. Let the gelatin bloom for about 20 minutes and then add the final volume of water at 40-50 degrees C. Stir the solution gently with a glass stirring rod. It is now ready to be used.

I pour the solution into a clean print tray and then immerse the paper in the solution. I lift the paper from the gelatin solution and let most of the liquid run off of it back into the tray. I then place the paper, face down, on a piece of thick plexiglass that is resting at an angle and squeegee it with a glass coating rod that is larger than the paper. I turn the paper over and squeegee the surface. I hang the paper to dry on a line that is stretched above my darkroom sink.

As the solution cools it becomes very messy and difficult to work with. I regularly pour mine from the tray back into a pirex cup that sits on a coffee warmer. The optimal temperature for the solution is around 40-45 degrees C and it should not be heated to above 54 degrees C. If there is any sizing solution left over it can be covered and kept in the refrigerator for a few days to be used later after reheating.

Printing

Negative

Salted paper is categorized as printing-out paper and must be printed by contact. Due to the self masking nature of P.O.P. a negative with great contrast is needed for optimal results. Salt prints can render delicate shadow and highlight detail, perhaps better than any other printing process. If you have been exposing and developing your film for conventional silver-gelatin paper you probably don’t have a negative with adequate contrast for a standard salted paper print.

I make enlarged negatives using the Liam Lawless technique of reverse processing of lith film. It is economical and not so difficult to learn. A detailed description of this process is found in the article Less is More by Ed Buffaloe at Unblinking Eye.

Printing Frame

You will need a split back printing frame so that you can monitor your exposures without losing registration between the negative and paper. I use one that I purchased through Bostick & Sullivan and I am very happy with it.

For masking I use red construction paper that is just slightly smaller than the paper that I am printing on. I cut a rectangular opening just larger than the negative and place it on the paper. I place the negative inside the rectangle.

Light Source

The sun is the most readily available light source and gives the best contrast. Drawbacks of using sunlight include variable intensity and long exposure times. It is quite easy to build a UV printer using black lights as the light source. Exposures are fast and intensity is constant. It is also nice to be able to print at night.

Image above: Printing Frame in UV Printer

Exposure

Salt prints need to be exposed well past the point of looking just right because they will become much lighter during the processing sequence. After a little experience you will know when they are right.

Processing

Rinse

After you have determined that the print has received enough exposure take it out of the printer and rinse the unexposed silver. Most of what I have read calls for a simple rinse in running water but my tap water is quite alkaline at about pH 8 and has given me trouble with fog. To be on the safe side I rinse my prints in five consecutive trays of 1% citric acid solution for one minute in each tray. I fill four trays and after I have moved the print to the second tray I dump the first one, rinse it, and refill it. It now becomes tray number five.

Fixer

After the initial rinse salt prints must be thoroughly fixed. Be sure to use fresh fixer. I use a 10% solution of sodium thiosulfate (hypo) adding 2 grams of sodium bicarbonate to each liter of fixer. The sodium bicarbonate helps to hold back the bleaching that takes place and to keep the fixer slightly alkaline. I use two trays and fix for three minutes in each tray. After fixing prints should be immersed in a clearing agent such as Kodak Hypo Clear. I leave my salt prints in clearing agent for three minutes.

Wash

I wash my prints in an archival print washer for one hour and then hang them on a line above my sink to dry.

Salt Print Reducer (Bleach)

• Potassium Ferricyanide .25 gm (one coffee stirrer spoonful)
• Potassium Bromide  .2 gm (2 ml 10% solution)
• Hypo 5.0 gm (10 ml 50% solution)
• Water to make  1000.0 ml

Immerse the print in water and then check to make sure that there are no bubbles on the surface. It is then transferred to the reducer and agitated until the desired degree of bleaching is achieved. After reduction prints are treated in a clearing agent and then washed.

Salt Print Toner Recipes

Toning not only changes the image color of the salted paper print but also makes it much more permanent. The following toners can all be used before fixing or after. They all keep well and can be replenished.

Platinum Toner

• Water 400.0 ml
• Potassium Chloroplatinite (20% sol.) 1.0 ml
• Citric Acid 2.5 gm
• Sodium Chloride 2.5 gm
• Water to make 500.0 ml

Place the print in the toner and agitate it until the desired tone is acquired; usually three to ten minutes. If you tone before fixing the print should be rinsed for at least a minute in running water before it goes into the fixing bath. This toner gives a warm gray tone.

Palladium Toner

• Water 400.0 ml
• Sodium Chloropalladite (15% sol.) 2.0 ml
• Citric Acid 2.5 gm
• Sodium Chloride 2.5 gm
• Water to make 500.0 ml

Place the print in the toner and agitate it until the desired tone is acquired; usually three to ten minutes. If you tone before fixing the print should be rinsed for at least a minute in running water before it goes into the fixing bath. This toner gives a warm tone. Palladium toner has a tendency to lower contrast and also to move the color of the paper base from white to cream.

Gold/Borax Toner

• Warm Water (38 degrees C) 400.0 ml
• Borax 3.0 gm
• Gold Chloride (1% sol.) 6.0 ml
• Water to make 500.0 ml

After mixing the toner wait for one hour before using it. Place the print in the toner and agitate it until the desired tone is acquired; usually three to ten minutes. The print can go directly into the fixing bath if you tone before fixing. This toner gives a slightly warm tone.

Gold/Thiocarbamide Toner (my favorite):

• Gold Chloride (1% sol.)  12.0 ml
• Thiourea (1% sol.) 12.0 ml
• Tartaric Acid (10% sol.) 12.0 ml
• Sodium Chloride  5.0 gm
• Distilled Water to make  250.0 ml

Add the thiourea solution to the 12.5 ml of gold chloride solution until the precipitate that forms is dissolved. The quantity of the thiourea solution should be slightly more than that of the gold chloride. Add the tartaric acid to 150 ml of distilled water. Add the gold thiourea solution to the acid solution and mix thoroughly. Last, add the salt and top the solution off with water to 250 ml and stir until it is uniform.

The solution requires no aging; it is ready for use directly after mixing. It tones highlights and shadows at the same rate so the print tones evenly and can be removed from the toning bath at any time. It keeps well and resists decomposition even after moderate use. Tones from plum red to neutral gray can be achieved with this toner.

In conclusion

Everything that I have written here has been tried and proven by me personally. I feel that I have only just begun my exploration of the possibilities of the salted paper process. Salt printing is quite flexible and offers the practitioner a multitude of creative avenues. None of the formulas in this report must be followed exactly and I urge you to experiment and to explore so that you can experience some of the joys and disappointments that our predecessors must have experienced back in the 19th century.

(Information and Images found at http://www.alternativephotography.com/wp/processes/saltprints/a-dash-of-salt on 16.12.2015)